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不利解释规则 [2025] 3 MLJ 240 FC

案件概述:

  1. 本案涉及上诉人The New Straits Times Press (M) Bhd (简称“NST”) 与答辩人 Aideah Communication Sdn Bhd (简称“Aideah”) 之间的一项合同纠纷。双方签订了一系列收益分享协议,内容涉及Aideah 为NST的报纸提供编辑内容并争取广告。纠纷的起因是Aideah 向NST索偿未支付的佣金发票,而NST则提出反诉,要求从Aideah 处抵销一笔款项,理由是根据2013年协议,Aideah 未能达到最低保证金额(Minimum Guaranteed Sum,简称“MGS”)的合同义务,特别是2015年度的MGS。

法庭审理的关键法律问题:

  1. 本案提交给联邦法院审理的法律问题包括:
  • 2013年协议中是否存在关于最低保证金额(MGS)的有效条款?
  • “合理努力”(‘reasonable endeavours’)条款是否能否定1950年《合同法》(Contracts Act 1950)第10(1)和26条所规定的对价义务?
  • 合同中的“合理努力”条款是否会通过解除合同各方的权利、责任和义务,从而根据1950年《合同法》第30条和71条的规定造成不确定性和模糊性?
  • 在商业合同中,当存在含糊不清和/或相互矛盾的条款时,法院是否可以为双方重写交易/合同,同时考虑到1950年《合同法》和既定普通法原则?
  • “不利解释规则”(‘contra proferentum’ rule)是否优先于其他合同解释方式?

详细案情和双方抗辩点:

案件背景:

  1. NST与Aideah 之间存在长期的业务合作关系,核心是多份收益分享协议。这些协议规定了Aideah 需向NST的报纸提供独家编辑内容,并通过其网络为NST争取广告收入。作为回报,NST会向Aideah 支付一定比例的佣金。
  2. 纠纷的核心在于一份2013年签订的协议。Aideah 声称NST未支付其多张佣金发票的款项。而NST则反驳称,根据2013年协议的条款,Aideah 未能达到协议中规定的最低保证金额(MGS),特别是针对2015年度的表现。因此,NST认为其有权从Aideah 应得的款项中抵销这笔未达标的MGS金额。

双方的抗辩点:

Aideah (原告,在此上诉中为被上诉人) 的立场:

  1. Aideah 主张,2013年协议中并没有一个明确且可强制执行的条款,要求其必须达到一个具体的MGS。或者,即使存在这样的条款,也应受到“合理努力”条款的制约,即只要其已尽合理努力争取广告和内容,即使未能达到MGS,也不应被追究责任。Aideah 进一步辩称,若MGS条款与“合理努力”条款存在冲突,则应适用对起草方不利的解释原则(contra proferentum),即对起草合同方(通常是NST)不利的方式来解释模糊条款。

NST(被告,在此上诉中为上诉人)的立场:

  1. NST坚称,2013年协议明确规定了Aideah 有义务实现MGS,这是其获得佣金的先决条件或重要考量。NST认为,“合理努力”条款并不能完全免除Aideah 达到MGS的义务,因为MGS是合同对价的重要组成部分。NST认为,若允许“合理努力”条款否定MGS义务,将导致合同的不确定性,并使得合同条款失去其商业效力。NST还强调,法院不应为双方重写合同,而应严格按照合同文本进行解释。

法官引用的法律条文、案例和法律原则:

  1. 联邦法院在审理本案时,详细审视了合同解释的原则,并引用了多项重要的法律条文和判例法。
  • 《合同法 1950》(Contracts Act 1950)的相关条文:
    • 第10(1)条: 涉及合同的要素,强调合同需有自由同意、有对价、有合法目的,并且不被法律明确声明无效。在此案中,MGS是否构成有效对价是争论点之一。
    • 第26条: 规定了没有对价的协议是无效的,除非符合某些例外情况。这与MGS是否为有效对价紧密相关。
    • 第30条: 涉及不确定协议的效力。如果合同条款过于模糊或不确定,以至于法院无法确定双方的意图,则该协议可能被视为无效。
    • 第71条: 关于因无偿行为而获得利益的义务。此条可能在探讨未能实现MGS但仍有部分履行时,是否需要返还已支付的佣金等问题时被提及。
  • 合同解释的原则:
    • 上下文解释(Contextual Interpretation): 法院强调,在解释合同条款时,必须考虑合同的整体背景和目的。正如在判词[146]段落中所引用的,法官必须根据协议的整体来确定当事人的意图。一个条款的绝对承诺可能会被后续的限定性词语所限制或修改。这意味着,即使存在一个看似绝对的MGS义务,也必须结合“合理努力”条款以及整个协议的语境来理解其真实含义。
    • 合同条款的一致性和连贯性(Consistency and Coherence): 判词在[147]段引用了Sir Kim Lewison在其著作《合同解释》(The Interpretation of Contracts (2015) (6th Ed, Sweet & Maxwell))第522页中的观点,即“合同文件应尽可能地相互补充,从而以一致和连贯的方式表达各方的意图。” 这意味着法院应努力寻找合同条款之间的和谐,而不是立即认定它们相互矛盾。只有在存在“明确且不可调和的差异”时,才需要诉诸合同的优先顺序规则来解决。这一原则直接反驳了简单地将“合理努力”条款和MGS条款视为完全对立的观点。
    • 不重写合同(No Rewriting of Contracts): 法院重申了其不为当事人重写合同的原则。法院的职责是解释现有合同,而不是创造新的合同。如果合同条款不明确,法院会努力找出当事人的真实意图,但不会干预并重塑合同的商业条款。
  • 对“contra proferentum”规则的分析:
    • 规则定义: “contra proferentum” 规则是指,当合同条款存在含糊不清或模棱两可之处时,法院应将其解释为不利于起草该条款的一方。其理论基础在于,起草方有责任确保条款的清晰性,如果其未能做到,则应承担由此产生的解释风险。
    • 适用情境: 这一规则尤其常用于免责条款、限制责任条款以及保险合同中,因为这些条款往往由一方起草,并试图限制另一方的权利。
    • 本案中的运用(或不运用):
      • 联邦法院的判词似乎并未直接适用或优先采纳“contra proferentum”规则来解决本案的争议。相反,法院更倾向于通过上下文解释和寻求合同条款的一致性来解决潜在的模糊性。判词在[147]段援引Sir Kim Lewison的观点,强调了“合同文件应尽可能地相互补充”,并且只有在“明确且不可调和的差异”时才需要诉诸优先顺序。这意味着,在法院看来,解释合同的首要任务是找出各方的一致意图,而不是简单地因为存在表面上的模糊性就立即援引“contra proferentum”规则。
      • 在联邦法院拒绝回答第六个问题(“不利解释规则是否优先于其他解释方式”)时,实际上暗示了该规则并非万能的,也并非总是优先于其他解释原则。法院可能认为,在商业合同的解释中,更重要的是通过整体阅读和商业常识来推断当事人的真实意图,而非仅仅因为某一条款可能存在歧义就立即采用对起草方不利的解释。特别是在双方都有能力协商和审查合同条款的商业交易中,与消费者合同或格式合同相比,“contra proferentum”规则的适用性可能更为有限。法院倾向于先穷尽所有可能使合同条款保持一致和有意义的解释方法,只有在无法消除明确和不可调和的矛盾时,才会考虑如“contra proferentum”这样的辅助性解释原则。
      • 这表明,马来西亚联邦法院在解释商业合同时,更侧重于追求合同的商业目的和当事人通过整体协议所表达的真实意图,而非仅仅依赖单一的解释规则来解决表面冲突。

法官对此案的分析:

  1. 联邦法院在分析此案时,采取了系统性且注重商业现实的视角。

(a) 对最低保证金额(MGS)的审视:法院首先会审查2013年协议的文本,以确定MGS条款是否存在、其措辞如何,以及它是否构成了Aideah 获得佣金的先决条件或一项独立义务。MGS通常被视为商业合同中对业绩的承诺,旨在确保一方的最低收入或另一方的最低投入。如果合同中明确规定了MGS,那么它通常被视为一个有约束力的义务。

(b) 对“合理努力”条款的解读:“合理努力”条款的含义是本案的关键。法院会探讨“合理努力”在商业语境中的含义。它通常不意味着保证成功,而是要求一方采取合理且勤勉的步骤来达成某项目标。然而,法院必须确定,“合理努力”条款是否能完全削弱MGS的义务。例如,如果MGS是一个硬性指标,而“合理努力”只是指达到这个指标的过程,那么两者可能并不矛盾。但如果“合理努力”被解释为,即使未达到MGS,只要尽力了就免责,那两者就可能存在冲突。

联邦法院会审视,在商业实践中,当MGS与“合理努力”条款并存时,其通常的商业理解是什么。通常情况下,MGS是结果性义务,而“合理努力”是过程性义务。如果合同明确要求结果(MGS),那么“合理努力”往往是达到该结果的方式,而非免除结果的借口。除非合同明确规定,若“合理努力”未能达成MGS,则可以免责,否则MGS义务通常依然存在。

(c) 条款之间的协调与一致性:如前所述,法院会努力协调MGS条款与“合理努力”条款,使其形成一个连贯的整体。法院会问:这些条款共同表达了当事人怎样的意图?是否MGS是主要的义务,而“合理努力”是支持性的,即在履行MGS时必须采取“合理努力”?抑或是“合理努力”构成了MGS义务的一个例外或条件?联邦法院强调,合同应被视为一个整体,各个条款相互补充,形成一个逻辑自洽的协议。法院不会轻易认定条款之间存在不可调和的矛盾。

(d) 对价和不确定性原则的考量:如果“合理努力”条款被解释为完全否定MGS,那么法院可能会考量这是否会影响合同的对价(consideration)。MGS可能是NST同意支付佣金的重要对价。如果MGS义务变得不确定或可有可无,那么合同的商业基础和对价的充足性可能会受到影响。法院也会避免做出导致合同条款模糊不清,从而根据《合同法》第30条变得无效的解释。

(e) 法院不重写合同的原则:

联邦法院明确表示,其不会为当事人重写合同。这意味着,如果合同条款存在商业上的不利或未尽之处,法院不会干预以“纠正”这些问题。法院的职责是解释当事人所同意的合同,而不是创造一个更“公平”或更“完善”的协议。这一原则也限制了法院在存在含糊或矛盾条款时,通过自由裁量来“填补空白”或“纠正错误”的权限。

法官最后的判决和裁决的理由:

  1. 在仔细审议了所有提交的论点、法律条文和相关判例后,联邦法院做出了以下判决:

(i) 关于MGS和“合理努力”条款:

    • 虽然判词的“Conclusion”部分没有逐一列出对每个问题的具体回答,但从联邦法院维持上诉庭的裁决,以及拒绝回答第六个问题(关于“contra proferentum”规则的优先性)来看,其判决逻辑指向以下几点:
      • MGS条款的有效性: 联邦法院很可能认定2013年协议中存在有效的MGS条款,并且该条款构成Aideah 的一项有约束力的义务。
      • “合理努力”条款的作用: 法院可能认为,“合理努力”条款并不能完全否定或免除Aideah 达到MGS的义务。相反,它可能被解释为一种对履行MGS义务的要求,即Aideah 必须尽合理努力来达成MGS,但这并不意味着未达到MGS就可以免责。法院可能认为,MGS是结果性义务,而“合理努力”是过程性义务,两者并不必然冲突。
      • 合同的一致性: 法院会努力协调MGS和“合理努力”条款,使其在商业上具有意义,并符合合同的整体意图。法院倾向于认为,这些条款是相互补充的,而不是相互矛盾的。

(ii) 拒绝回答第六个问题:

    • 判词在[148]段明确指出:“In the premises, we DECLINE TO ANSWER Question 6.”(在此前提下,我们拒绝回答问题6。)问题6是:“‘不利解释规则’是否优先于其他合同解释方式?”
    • 联邦法院拒绝回答此问题,这一决定本身就具有重要的法律意义。它表明法院不认为“contra proferentum”规则在所有情况下都具有绝对的优先权,或者说,在本案的特定事实背景下,该规则的优先级问题并不构成上诉解决的关键。这进一步强化了法院在解释商业合同时,更倾向于采用综合性、整体性和商业目的导向的解释方法,而不是机械地适用单一规则。法院可能认为,在能够通过其他解释原则(如上下文解释、寻求条款一致性)解决问题的情况下,无需就“contra proferentum”规则的优先性做出普遍性裁决。

(iii) 最终判决:判词[149]段明确指出:“In the upshot, we take the view that the Court of Appeal committed no appealable error warranting appellate intervention. After giving much consideration to the entire submissions and for the reasons above stated, we affirm the decision of the Court of Appeal and dismiss the defendant’s appeal with costs.”

    • 这意味着:
      • 联邦法院认为上诉庭并未犯下任何值得上诉干预的错误。
      • 联邦法院在充分考虑了所有呈堂论点和上述理由后,维持了上诉庭的判决,并驳回了NST(被告)的上诉,判决NST承担诉讼费用。
    • 这一判决结果暗示了上诉庭可能已经裁定Aideah 未能达到MGS,或者MGS条款是可强制执行的,并且“合理努力”条款并未完全免除此义务。联邦法院的决定是支持上诉庭的结论,即NST有权根据MGS条款对Aideah 提出反诉。

对此案的感言、领悟和结论:

  1. 作为一名资深律师,我对本案的判决有以下三点深刻的感言和结论:

(i) 合同起草的严谨性与预见性至关重要:

本案再次敲响了警钟,提醒所有商业实体在起草合同条款时必须极度严谨和富有预见性。MGS与“合理努力”条款的并存,看似提供灵活性,实则若措辞不当,便会成为争议的温床。合同的核心在于明确各方的权利、义务和风险分配。如果“合理努力”旨在免除MGS,则必须明确约定其条件和范围;如果MGS是硬性指标,则应清楚表明“合理努力”仅为达成该指标的过程。本案的纠纷成本高昂,完全可以通过更清晰、更无歧义的合同语言来避免。这提醒我们,在谈判和起草阶段投入足够的时间和专业资源,远比事后诉讼更具成本效益。

(ii) 马来西亚法院合同解释的务实与商业导向:

联邦法院拒绝就“contra proferentum”规则的优先性做出普遍裁决,以及其强调合同整体解释和寻求条款一致性的做法,清楚地揭示了马来西亚法院在解释商业合同时的务实和商业导向。法院不愿简单地因为某个条款存在表面的模糊性就立即援引“不利解释规则”,而是优先尝试通过上下文和商业常识来找出当事人的真实意图。这表明,在商业交易中,法院更注重合同的商业目的和各方协商达成的实际平衡,而非仅仅停留在文字游戏的层面。这对于商业界而言是一个重要的信号:合同的商业逻辑和意图,而非单一的解释原则,将是法院判决的核心考量。因此,律师在起草和解释合同条文时,必须深刻理解其背后的商业考量和风险分配。

(iii) 法律理论与商业实践的张力与融合:

本案的争议点——“合理努力”条款与“最低保证金额”义务之间的关系,恰好反映了法律理论(如对价、确定性原则)与商业实践(如追求灵活性的“合理努力”、追求确定性的“最低保证金额”)之间的张力。法院的任务是在这二者之间寻求平衡。判决结果表明,在商业背景下,如果一方明确承诺了某种“结果性”义务(如MGS),那么除非有非常明确的条款规定,否则“过程性”的“合理努力”条款通常不会完全免除这种结果性义务。这对于依赖特定业绩指标来衡量合作成果的商业模式,具有重要的指导意义。它提醒我们,在起草商业合同时,必须精准地界定何为“努力”之债,何为“结果”之债,以避免未来因预期不符而产生的法律纠纷。


Case Overview

  1. The Federal Court of Malaysia, in a significant ruling on 8 April 2025, dismissed an appeal by The New Straits Times Press (M) Bhd (“the Appellant” or “defendant”) against Aideah Communication Sdn Bhd (“the Respondent” or “plaintiff”), affirming the Court of Appeal’s decision regarding the interpretation of “minimum guaranteed sum” (MGS) and “reasonable endeavours” clauses in their revenue-sharing agreements. This judgment provides crucial clarification on contractual interpretation, particularly concerning the weight given to “endeavours” clauses and the burden of proof in commercial disputes.

Factual Background

  1. The Respondent, a company specialising in motor-related editorial content, entered into a series of revenue-sharing agreements with the Appellant, a prominent newspaper publisher, between 2003 and 2013. These agreements stipulated that the Respondent would provide editorial content and secure advertisements for the Appellant’s newspapers, with a key feature being the requirement for the Respondent to achieve an annual minimum revenue, termed the Minimum Guaranteed Sum (MGS), based on net advertising revenue.
  2. The dispute arose when the Appellant demanded RM1,589,947.74 from the Respondent for an alleged MGS shortfall under the 2013 agreement, asserting that the Respondent failed to meet its MGS obligation for 2015. Conversely, the Respondent claimed unpaid commissions totalling RM1,199,874.72 from the Appellant. While the Appellant did not deny owing the commission, it sought to set off this amount against the alleged MGS shortfall.
  3. The matter proceeded to the High Court, which ruled in favour of the Appellant, dismissing the Respondent’s claim and allowing the Appellant’s counterclaim. The Respondent successfully appealed to the Court of Appeal, which found that:
  4. Clause 4.3 of the 2013 agreement was the dominant provision, requiring the Respondent only to use “reasonable endeavour” to meet the MGS.
  5. Even if ambiguity existed in clauses 1 and 4, the contra proferentem rule dictated construction against the Appellant, as they proffered the agreement.
  6. The Appellant failed to prove that the Respondent did not use reasonable endeavours, thus justifying the dismissal of the set-off and counterclaim.
  7. The Appellant subsequently obtained leave to appeal to the Federal Court on six questions of law, primarily concerning the interpretation and effect of “reasonable endeavours” clauses, their interaction with the Contracts Act 1950, and the burden of proof.

Arguments Presented

Appellant’s Contentions:

  1. The Appellant argued that the MGS constituted an absolute consideration obligation under the 2013 agreement, pointing to the consistent historical achievement of targets by the Respondent and specific references to “guaranteed by ACSB” in clause 1. They further contended that a “reasonable endeavours” clause should not negate a fundamental consideration obligation under Sections 10(1) and 26 of the Contracts Act 1950, nor should it create uncertainty in contractual relationships, contrary to Sections 30 and 71. The Appellant also submitted that the contra proferentem rule should be a last resort in contractual interpretation and that the burden of proving reasonable endeavour lay with the obligor (the Respondent).

Respondent’s Contentions:

  1. The Respondent maintained that clause 4.3 explicitly stipulated an obligation to use “reasonable endeavour” to meet the MGS, rather than an absolute guarantee. They argued that this clause provided a commercially sensible approach aligned with the unpredictable nature of the advertising industry. The Respondent contended that the High Court erred in its interpretation by overlooking this crucial “reasonable endeavours” provision.

Legal Provisions and Cases Referred

  1. The Federal Court’s decision extensively referred to and interpreted several key legal provisions and judicial precedents:

Malaysian Legislation:

  1. Contracts Act 1950: Sections 10(1) (what agreements are contracts), 26 (agreement without consideration void), 30 (agreements void for uncertainty), and 71 (obligation of person enjoying benefit of non-gratuitous act) were central to the questions posed regarding the validity and enforceability of the “reasonable endeavours” clause and its impact on consideration.
  2. Evidence Act 1950: Section 92 (exclusion of evidence of oral agreement) and Section 101 (burden of proof) were critical in determining the admissibility of extrinsic evidence and establishing where the burden of proof lay.
  3. Key Cases:
  • Inntrepreneur Pub Co v East Crown [2000] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 611: Cited for the purpose and effect of an “entire agreement” clause, particularly in precluding reliance on pre-contractual remarks.
  • Investors Compensation Scheme v West Bromwich Building Society [1998] 1 WLR 896 (HL): Lord Hoffmann’s influential statement on the “matrix of fact” as background for contractual interpretation, even where the contract is unambiguous.
  • James Miller & Partners Ltd v Whitworth Street Estates (Manchester) Ltd [1970] AC 583 (HL): Reaffirmed the principle that subsequent conduct of parties cannot be used to construe a contract. 22
  • AIB Group (UK) Ltd v Martin and another [2002] 1 WLR 94 (HL): Emphasised the general rule that contractual intention is derived from the words used in the deed to ensure certainty in legal affairs. 23
  • Mannai Investment Co Ltd v Eagle Star Life Assurance Co Ltd [1997] AC 749 (HL): Highlighted that a commercially sensible construction should be hostile to technical interpretations and undue emphasis on linguistic niceties.
  • Rhodia International Holdings Ltd and another v Huntsman International LLC [2007] All ER (D) 264 (Feb): Distinguished between “reasonable endeavours” and “best endeavours,” noting the former as less stringent.
  • Malaysian Motor Insurance Pool v Tirumeniyar a/l Singara Veloo [2020] 1 MLJ 440: Reiterated the underlying principles of the contra proferentem rule.
  • McGeown v Direct Travel Insurance [2004] 1 All ER (Comm) 609: Referenced in relation to the contra proferentem rule.
  • Sattva Capital Corp v Creston Moly Corp [2014] SCJ No 53: Supported the idea that objective factual background serves as an interpretive aid without altering the contract’s meaning.

Court’s Analysis and Rationale

  1. The Federal Court systematically addressed each question of law, providing detailed reasoning for its conclusions:
  2. Operative Provision for MGS and “Reasonable Endeavours”: The Court held that despite an “entire agreement” clause (Clause 14), pre-2013 agreements could be referred to as part of the objective factual background to understand the parties’ intentions. Crucially, the Court found no specific operative provision in the 2013 agreement creating an absolute or unconditional liability for the Respondent to achieve a specific MGS. Clauses 4.1 and 4.2 were interpreted as “soft targets” or projections guided by the “reasonable endeavour” standard in Clause 4.3. The Court rejected using the Respondent’s subsequent conduct (e.g., acknowledgments in letters or emails) as extrinsic evidence to contradict Clause 4.3 or to introduce the terms “Minimum Guaranteed Sum” or “guarantee” where they were not explicitly present, citing the principle that contracts cannot be construed by post-formation conduct.
  3. “Reasonable Endeavours” and Contracts Act 1950 (Questions 1 & 2): The Federal Court affirmed that “reasonable endeavour” is an enforceable contractual term, not merely a generic phrase. 33 Its inclusion provides a pragmatic approach that aligns with the unpredictable nature of the advertising industry. The Court dismissed the Appellant’s argument that a “reasonable endeavours” clause negates consideration or introduces uncertainty, concluding that giving effect to such clauses does not undermine rights and liabilities under Sections 10(1), 26, 30, and 71 of the Contracts Act 1950. Accordingly, questions 1 and 2 were answered in the negative.
  4. Courts Rewriting Contracts and Contra Proferentem Rule (Questions 3 & 4): The Federal Court found no ambiguity or inconsistency in the terms of the 2013 agreement. It noted that the Court of Appeal had appropriately considered the contra proferentem rule as a last resort, demonstrating a thorough understanding of its contours and not invoking it hastily. Given the absence of ambiguity in the contract, the questions regarding the courts’ ability to rewrite contracts (Question 3) and the precedence of the contra proferentem rule (Question 4) were deemed irrelevant and thus declined to be answered, as they would not impact the appeal’s outcome.
  5. Burden of Proof for “Reasonable Endeavours” (Question 5): A critical finding was that the burden of proof to demonstrate a failure to use “reasonable endeavours” rests on the obligee (the Appellant), not the obligor (the Respondent). Unlike a guaranteed undertaking, where mere non-achievement suffices, proving a breach of a “reasonable endeavour” obligation requires the obligee to show that the obligor did not exercise reasonable diligence. This aligns with the legal maxim ‘semper necessitas probandi incumbit ei qui agit’ (he who asserts must prove), statutorily recognised by Section 101 of the Evidence Act 1950. Therefore, question 5 was answered in the negative.
  6. Generalia Specialibus Non Derogant (Question 6): The Court concluded that the maxim generalia specialibus non derogant (general provisions do not derogate from specific ones) was inapplicable in this case because there was no inconsistency between Clause 4.1, 4.2 (desired results without guarantee) and Clause 4.3 (standard for performance). These clauses were seen as different provisions with overlapping aims, not contradictory ones where a general clause would yield to a specific one. Consequently, question 6 was declined to be answered.

Final Verdict and Ruling

  1. The Federal Court dismissed the Appellant’s appeal with costs, affirming the decision of the Court of Appeal. The Court found that the Court of Appeal committed no appealable error warranting appellate intervention.

Insights, Learnings, and Conclusions

  1. Precision in Contractual Drafting is Paramount: This case underscores the critical importance of meticulous drafting in commercial contracts, particularly when defining performance obligations. The distinction between an absolute guarantee and an obligation to use “reasonable endeavours” is legally significant. Parties must ensure their chosen words precisely reflect their intended level of commitment and risk allocation. Ambiguity can lead to protracted litigation, as seen here, even if the courts ultimately seek to apply commercial common sense. Lawyers should advise clients to clearly delineate “guaranteed outcomes” from “best efforts” or “reasonable endeavours” clauses, anticipating how such terms might be interpreted in unforeseen circumstances.
  2. The Enduring Relevance of Context and Commercial Common Sense: While strictly adhering to the “four corners” of a contract, Malaysian courts, much like their common law counterparts, are increasingly willing to consider the broader objective factual matrix in which a contract was formed. This approach, influenced by cases like Investors Compensation Scheme, acknowledges that business agreements are not created in a vacuum. However, this flexibility does not extend to admitting post-formation conduct to redefine clear terms or introduce new ones, ensuring contractual certainty. For legal practitioners, this highlights the need to thoroughly document the commercial background and negotiations leading to an agreement, as this context can be crucial in later disputes regarding interpretation.
  3. Shifting Burden of Proof for “Endeavours” Clauses: The Federal Court’s clear pronouncement on the burden of proof for “reasonable endeavours” clauses is a significant clarification. By placing the onus on the obligee (the party asserting breach) to prove a lack of reasonable diligence, rather than simply the non-achievement of a target, the judgment sets a high bar for claims based on such clauses. This differentiates “endeavours” obligations from “guaranteed” outcomes, where non-performance itself is sufficient. This ruling means that parties relying on “reasonable endeavours” clauses must be prepared to adduce concrete evidence demonstrating the obligor’s failure to take diligent steps, rather than merely pointing to a shortfall in results. This will undoubtedly influence litigation strategies and discovery processes in future contractual disputes involving similar clauses.

Source: The New Straits Times Press (M) Bhd v Aideah Communication Sdn Bhd [2025] 3 MLJ 240. Federal Court, Putrajaya. Zabariah Yusof, Abdul Karim and Ahmad Terrirudin FCJJ.

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#Contra Proferentum #Contra Proferentem

Contra Proferentem 是一个拉丁法律原则,意思是:“对起草合同的一方不利的解释方式”。在中文里,它通常翻译为「反对起草人原则」。意思是:如果合同的某些条款存在模糊或歧义,法院会倾向于不利地解释该条款给起草该合同的一方。


案件背景 — 从合作无间到商战风暴

  1. 曾几何时,马来西亚最受欢迎的报社之一——《The New Straits Times Press》(简称NSTP)与一家名不见经传的小型传媒公司 Aideah Communication Sdn Bhd(简称ACS)牵手合作。双方联手打造汽车专栏《Cars, Bikes and Trucks》与《Berita Harian Auto》,一写就是十多年。ACS由一位资深汽车记者领军,每一篇稿件都让读者血脉喷张、销量暴涨,NSTP也从中获取广告收益,两边都赚得盆满钵满。
  2. 但故事在2015年迎来急转直下。在那个经济低迷、广告投放萎缩的一年,ACS没能达成合作协议中所谓的“Minimum Guaranteed Sum”(简称MGS)——即每年保底广告收入。
  3. NSTP随即翻脸,像电视剧里翻桌子的反派大佬,一纸账单,要求ACS赔偿超过5百万的“亏空”!ACS主张:合同并非“死规定”,我们只需“尽合理努力”就好,并没有包赚不赔的承诺啊!
  4. 于是,一场法律商战悄然开打。

双方攻防 — 合同文字、过去惯例与法律原则正面对决

  1. NSTP出击,声称:ACS多年合作都交出亮眼成绩,2013年的合同虽未直接用“担保”字眼,但几乎所有指标都清晰标明“最低营收”。而且你ACS的董事还写信承认亏损,请求原谅,还说愿意豁免过去RM300,000广告佣金——这不就等于认罪了吗?
  2. ACS不甘示弱,举起“合理努力”这张护身符,指着合同第3条大声念出:“我方只需合理努力促成MGS,不代表我一定要完成。”而且,所谓“担保金”根本没在4.1和4.2条文中出现过,NSTP硬塞进去的解释才是无理取闹。
  3. 高庭法官听完双方口水战,冷静一锤定音:合约文字最关键,ACS确实没完成MGS,又写信又签字,说明你默认责任。NSTP胜诉!
  4. 但剧情再次翻转。ACS不服,上诉到上诉庭。上诉庭法官拿起放大镜重新解读合约:“嗯,第3条清楚写着‘reasonable endeavours’,那就是软性目标。”而且合同是NSTP起草的,模糊之处必须“反解释”(contra proferentem)——模糊由你起,责任也由你担!于是,ACS大逆转胜诉!
  5. NSTP一怒之下,继续上诉到联邦法院……

法庭最终分析与判决 — “合理努力”条款的真正意义

  1. 联邦法院三位法官犹如《纸房子》般审慎剖析合约的字字句句。他们强调:法律不是给商人“玩文字游戏”的工具。即使双方以前曾有“MGS”条款,但2013年的合同是最新版本,必须以它为准。
  2. 法官指出,第3条明文强调“合理努力”,第4.1和4.2根本没提“必须达到MGS”。ACS的表现虽不理想,但没有证据证明他们没有尽力去争取广告。NSTP想凭“结果没达标”就要求赔偿,逻辑站不住脚。
  3. 此外,法庭也严正指出,所谓董事写信承认失败、请求宽容,那只是商业交涉语言,并不能改写合同本身的条款。法律不能容许模糊词句被一方强解为对方必须承担无限责任。
  4. 最终,联邦法院驳回NSTP的上诉,维持上诉庭判决,ACS胜诉。

总结、启发与教训 — 商业合同不能靠“感觉”打天下

  1. 这场长达近十年的商业纠纷告诉我们一个残酷又真实的道理:合同不是“合作多年感情好”的情面游戏,而是冷冰冰的法律工具。无论你是上市公司、老字号、还是小本创业者,签合约前都必须:
  • 明确写下各方的责任与义务,避免使用模糊不清的词如“reasonable endeavour”;
  • 所有条文必须逐字审核,尤其是涉及金钱赔偿和保底收入;
  • 不能只靠“以前都这样做”“老板说可以”这种口头惯例;
  • 若有模糊条款,由起草方负责后果。
  1. 若你是合约中较弱的一方,记得:反解释原则(contra proferentem)是你的护身符。但若你是起草方,不想日后被人打脸,就要先聘请专业律师审核合约。
  2. 签署任何合约、协议前,务必付费咨询Wilson Kuek律师,避免将来陷入官司泥潭。

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